In brief
Every city, farm, road, forest, grassland, wetland, and plantation occupies land.
Yet land is far more than the physical surface beneath our feet.
It regulates climate, stores carbon, recycles water, supports biodiversity, produces food, filters freshwater, forms soils, and connects ecosystems across continents. The way humanity manages land therefore influences nearly every major process within the Earth system.
Over the past several centuries—and especially since the mid-twentieth century—humans have transformed Earth’s landscapes at an unprecedented scale. Forests have been converted into cropland and pasture, wetlands drained, rivers modified, grasslands fragmented, and urban areas expanded.
These changes have enabled extraordinary gains in food production, economic development, and human population. At the same time, they have reduced habitat, altered regional climates, weakened carbon sinks, disrupted water cycles, and accelerated biodiversity loss.
Recognizing the central importance of land, the Planetary Boundaries framework identifies Land-System Change as one of the nine critical Earth-system processes that help maintain Earth’s safe operating space.
Unlike earlier approaches that emphasized the total area of cropland, the current framework focuses primarily on forest cover, because forests play an exceptional role in regulating climate, biodiversity, and the exchange of energy, water, and momentum between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. (DOI)
The latest Planetary Health Check 2025 reports that global forest cover has declined to approximately 59% of potential natural forest cover, well below the planetary boundary of 75%. All major forest biomes have crossed their respective safety thresholds. (Planetary Health Check)
Land-system change is therefore no longer viewed simply as a conservation issue. It has become one of the defining challenges for maintaining Earth’s resilience in the Anthropocene.
Quick Answer
Land-system change refers to the large-scale transformation of Earth’s natural landscapes through agriculture, livestock grazing, forestry, mining, infrastructure, and urban development.
The Planetary Boundaries framework measures this process primarily through remaining forest cover relative to potential natural forest cover, because forests strongly regulate climate, biodiversity, and the global water cycle.
According to the Planetary Health Check 2025:
| Indicator | Planetary Boundary | Current Value | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Global forest cover | 75% of potential forest cover | ~59% | Breached |
Biome-specific thresholds are:
- Tropical forests: 85%
- Boreal forests: 85%
- Temperate forests: 50%
All three major forest biomes have exceeded their respective planetary boundaries. (Planetary Health Check)
What Is Land-System Change?
Land-system change refers to how humans transform natural landscapes.
Examples include:
- Converting forests into farmland
- Expanding livestock pasture
- Building cities
- Constructing roads
- Mining
- Logging
- Draining wetlands
- Plantation forestry
- Industrial infrastructure
The important point is that land-system change involves both land cover and land use.
For example:
A tropical rainforest converted into soybean fields experiences:
- Different vegetation
- Different biodiversity
- Different soil processes
- Different carbon storage
- Different water cycling
- Different surface reflectivity
- Different energy exchange
Although both remain “land,” they function very differently within the Earth system.
Why Forests Matter More Than Land Area Alone
Earlier versions of the Planetary Boundaries framework measured the proportion of cropland.
Research later showed that this did not adequately capture Earth’s climate-regulating processes.
The updated framework therefore focuses on remaining forest cover.
Why forests?
Because forests regulate:
- Carbon storage
- Evapotranspiration
- Rainfall recycling
- Surface energy balance
- Soil protection
- Biodiversity
- Freshwater systems
Among terrestrial ecosystems, forests exhibit particularly strong coupling with regional and global climate. Tropical forests influence rainfall through evapotranspiration, while boreal forests affect Earth’s energy balance through snow–forest interactions and surface albedo. (DOI)
Earth’s Three Major Forest Biomes
Tropical Forests
Examples include:
- Amazon
- Congo Basin
- Southeast Asian rainforests
These forests:
- Store enormous carbon stocks
- Generate rainfall
- Support exceptional biodiversity
- Influence atmospheric circulation
The planetary boundary requires approximately 85% of original tropical forest cover to remain. (Planetary Health Check)
Temperate Forests
Located across:
- Europe
- Eastern North America
- East Asia
Temperate forests remain ecologically important, although their climatic influence differs from tropical forests.
The boundary is approximately 50% remaining forest cover. (Planetary Health Check)
Boreal Forests
Stretching across:
- Canada
- Alaska
- Scandinavia
- Russia
Boreal forests:
- Store vast amounts of carbon
- Influence snow cover
- Affect planetary albedo
- Protect frozen soils
Their planetary boundary is approximately 85% remaining cover. (Planetary Health Check)
The Current State of Land-System Change
The Planetary Health Check 2025 concludes:
- Global forest cover is about 59% of potential natural cover.
- The planetary boundary is 75%.
- All major forest biomes have transgressed their safe thresholds.
- Forest loss continues despite some regional recovery through reforestation and natural regrowth. (Planetary Health Check)
Although the overall rate of forest loss has slowed in some regions, Earth remains well inside the zone of increasing risk rather than returning toward the safe operating space. (Arcadia Foundation)
What Drives Land-System Change?
Land transformation results from many interacting pressures.
Agriculture
Agriculture is the single largest driver.
Expansion occurs through:
- Cropland
- Pasture
- Plantation crops
Together with livestock production, agricultural expansion accounts for nearly 90% of recent global deforestation, although regional patterns differ. Cropland expansion dominates parts of Africa and Southeast Asia, while cattle ranching is especially important in South America. (Planetary Health Check)
Livestock Grazing
Livestock production occupies enormous areas of land.
Pasture expansion often replaces forests, especially in tropical regions.
Indirectly, livestock production also drives cropland expansion through feed production.
Logging
Wood harvesting supports:
- Construction
- Paper
- Furniture
- Bioenergy
Unsustainable logging fragments forests and frequently opens previously inaccessible areas to agriculture and settlement. (Planetary Health Check)
Infrastructure
Roads, railways, pipelines, dams, mining operations, and urban expansion alter landscapes directly.
Road construction often triggers secondary deforestation by increasing access to remote forests.
Mining
Extraction of:
- Metals
- Rare earth elements
- Coal
- Sand
- Industrial minerals
requires roads, settlements, and infrastructure that further fragment ecosystems.
Climate Change
Climate change increasingly acts as both a consequence and a driver of land-system change.
Higher temperatures, drought, wildfire, and pest outbreaks weaken forests and increase mortality. Climate-driven stress is becoming an increasingly important cause of forest degradation alongside direct land conversion. (Planetary Health Check)
Forests as Climate Regulators
Forests regulate climate through several mechanisms.
Carbon Storage
Trees remove carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.
Carbon accumulates in:
- Wood
- Leaves
- Roots
- Soil
When forests are cleared:
- Stored carbon is released.
- Future carbon uptake declines.
Moisture Recycling
Trees release enormous quantities of water through transpiration.
This moisture contributes to cloud formation and rainfall.
Large forests help sustain precipitation across entire regions.
Surface Energy Balance
Forests influence:
- Surface roughness
- Wind
- Heat exchange
- Evaporation
These properties affect regional climate.
Albedo
Different land surfaces reflect different amounts of sunlight.
Replacing forests with cropland or snow-covered landscapes changes Earth’s reflectivity, influencing regional temperatures.
Agriculture: Essential Yet Transformative
Agriculture supports nearly eight billion people.
Without farming, modern civilization would not exist.
However, agriculture also transforms ecosystems more extensively than any other human activity.
It changes:
- Vegetation
- Soil
- Water
- Carbon cycling
- Biodiversity
- Nutrient flows
The challenge is therefore not agriculture versus nature.
The challenge is producing sufficient food while maintaining Earth’s life-support systems.
Food Production and the Land Challenge
Global food demand continues to increase because of:
- Population growth
- Rising incomes
- Dietary changes
- Urbanization
Meeting this demand without further large-scale deforestation requires multiple strategies.
These include:
- Sustainable intensification
- Reduced food waste
- Improved crop productivity
- Better grazing management
- Agroforestry
- Dietary shifts where appropriate
- Restoration of degraded land
No single solution is sufficient.
Land-System Change and Biodiversity
Habitat loss remains the largest direct driver of terrestrial biodiversity decline.
When forests become fragmented:
- Populations become isolated.
- Species lose habitat.
- Pollination declines.
- Seed dispersal changes.
- Predator–prey relationships shift.
Biodiversity loss also reduces ecosystem resilience.
Because biosphere integrity and land-system change interact closely, degradation of one boundary often accelerates deterioration of the other. (DOI)
Land-System Change and Freshwater
Vegetation strongly influences freshwater.
Forests:
- Increase infiltration
- Reduce erosion
- Stabilize streamflow
- Protect groundwater recharge
- Reduce flooding
Deforestation can therefore produce:
- More runoff
- Lower soil moisture
- Increased sediment transport
- Reduced rainfall recycling
This explains the close relationship between land-system change and the freshwater planetary boundary.
Land-System Change and Climate Change
The relationship is two-way.
Land conversion contributes to climate change by:
- Releasing carbon
- Reducing carbon sinks
- Altering surface energy balance
Climate change contributes to land degradation through:
- Drought
- Heatwaves
- Wildfires
- Pest outbreaks
- Extreme weather
These interactions can create reinforcing feedbacks.
Forest Fragmentation: More Than Area Loss
Forest area alone does not fully describe ecosystem health.
A fragmented forest may retain tree cover while losing:
- Wildlife
- Ecological connectivity
- Carbon storage
- Moisture recycling
- Resilience
For this reason, the Planetary Health Check recommends incorporating indicators such as forest integrity, fragmentation, and ecological connectivity into future assessments. (idgr.org)
Restoration and Reforestation
Land degradation is not always permanent.
Restoration approaches include:
Reforestation
Re-establishing forests on previously forested land.
Afforestation
Creating forests where forests did not previously exist.
Natural Regeneration
Allowing forests to recover naturally after disturbance.
Agroforestry
Integrating trees with agriculture.
Benefits include:
- Carbon storage
- Soil protection
- Biodiversity
- Crop resilience
Landscape Restoration
Restoring ecological function across larger landscapes rather than isolated sites.
However, restoration should not be viewed as a substitute for preventing the loss of intact ecosystems. Mature natural forests typically provide greater biodiversity, carbon storage, and climate regulation than newly established plantations.
Land-System Change in the Anthropocene
The Anthropocene recognizes humanity as an Earth-system force.
Land transformation is one of the clearest expressions of that influence.
Humanity has:
- Cleared forests
- Redirected rivers
- Built cities
- Expanded agriculture
- Fragmented habitats
- Modified fire regimes
These changes have altered the functioning of the biosphere itself.
Understanding land-system change therefore requires integrating ecology, agriculture, economics, hydrology, climatology, and social sciences.
Common Misunderstandings
“Land-system change only means deforestation.”
No.
It also includes agriculture, grazing, urbanization, infrastructure, mining, plantations, and ecosystem fragmentation.
“Planting trees always replaces natural forests.”
Not necessarily.
Tree plantations usually cannot replicate the biodiversity and ecological functions of intact natural forests.
“Agriculture is the enemy.”
Agriculture is essential for human survival.
The challenge is developing farming systems that produce sufficient food while minimizing unnecessary ecosystem degradation.
“Forest area is all that matters.”
Forest quality, ecological integrity, connectivity, and species composition are also crucial for long-term resilience. (idgr.org)
Frequently Asked Questions
What is land-system change?
Land-system change refers to human transformation of natural landscapes through agriculture, forestry, infrastructure, mining, urbanization, and other land uses. (Planetary Health Check)
Why does the planetary boundary focus on forests?
Forests exert particularly strong influences on climate regulation, carbon storage, biodiversity, and the water cycle, making them an effective indicator of global land-system functioning. (DOI)
Has the land-system boundary been crossed?
Yes. Global forest cover is approximately 59% of potential natural cover, below the planetary boundary of 75%, and all major forest biomes have exceeded their respective thresholds. (Planetary Health Check)
What causes most deforestation?
Agricultural expansion—particularly cropland and livestock grazing—is the leading direct cause of global deforestation, accounting for nearly 90% of recent forest loss. (Planetary Health Check)
Can degraded landscapes recover?
Many can recover through restoration, reforestation, natural regeneration, and sustainable land management, although recovery may take decades and cannot always fully recreate original ecosystems.
Why does land-system change matter for climate?
Forests store carbon, regulate rainfall, influence surface energy exchange, and help stabilize regional and global climate. Their loss therefore contributes to climate change while reducing Earth’s capacity to absorb future emissions.
Conclusion
Land is far more than a surface on which human societies build farms, roads, and cities.
It is an active component of the Earth system, regulating climate, freshwater, biodiversity, nutrient cycles, and carbon storage through complex interactions among forests, soils, vegetation, atmosphere, and living organisms.
The latest Planetary Health Check shows that humanity has moved well beyond the safe operating space for land-system change. Global forest cover has fallen to roughly 59% of its potential natural extent—far below the planetary boundary of 75%—and every major forest biome has crossed its safety threshold. (Planetary Health Check)
Yet the future is not predetermined.
Protecting remaining intact forests, restoring degraded landscapes, improving agricultural productivity without expanding into natural ecosystems, strengthening Indigenous land stewardship, reducing food waste, and designing food systems that work within ecological limits can all help reduce pressure on the land system.
Ultimately, the challenge is not choosing between food production and nature. It is learning how to manage Earth’s landscapes so they continue to feed humanity while preserving the resilience of the living planet on which all societies depend.
